Research: Techniques, Types, and Tools

Definition of Research

Research is a scientific quest for knowledge, aimed at learning, discovering and interpreting new facts and testing old facts/ideas. It is a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to
generate new knowledge and answer a certain question.

Purposes of Research

Reevaluating a known idea
Discovering a new idea
Description of characteristics
Occurrence/association of events
Hypothesis testing

Characteristics of Research

Problem solving
Requires expertise
Theories/facts formulation
Empirical evidence/objective
Accurate information
Proper design
Documentation

Types of Research

Information obtained

Qualitative
Quantitative
Mixed method

Utility

True-experimental
Pre-experimental
Quasi-experimental

Approach

Cross-sectional
Longitudinal

Research Methods

Descriptive/Survey

Direct observation of phenomenon
Types: survey, inter-relationship,
developmental, content analysis

Experimental

Scientific method, measurement of relationships based on an intervention/manipulation
Elements: control, intervention, observation, replication

Research Process

Problem identification
Study objectives
Literature survey
Design
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation/conclusion
Report writing

Research Design

Research design is the framework of the study which guides the procedure

Purposes of Research Design

Smooth scaling, collection of relevant data, overview to others, minimize expenditure

Characteristics of Research Design

Objectivity, reliability, validity, generalizability, adequate information

Research Problem

A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, questions, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you will aim to address in your research. This is also called research question.

Identification

Field of interest, mastery of area, review of known, priority, identify problem, pin point aspect

Statement of problem

Clearly stated relationship between variables, amenable to empirical testing

Evaluation

Researchable, New, Significant.

Variables

Variable is a characteristic about each
individual element of a population or
sample.
Variables are classified according to their:

1.Type:

Quantitative (continuous, discrete)
Qualitative ( ordinal, nominal)

2. Role in the study:

Dependent: varied/modifiable factor
Independent

3. Relationship with other study factors:

Main study variables
Confounding variables
Effect modifiers
Intermediate factors

Levels of measurement

Nominal: attributes only named; e.g. gender; marital status, religion, ethnicity, diagnosis
Ordinal: attributes ordered; e.g. grade (A, B, C, D, E, F), rating scale (poor & good), symptom (no pain, mild pain)
Interval: ordered, meaningful distance; e.g. Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales
Ratio: ordered, meaningful distance, absolute zero; e.g. height, weight, time.

Sampling

This is methods of selecting participants from the population. It is not always feasible to use entire population.

Sampling Frame

Complete and accurate list of entire population that is available for the survey.

Sampling Unit

Member of the sample population

Sampling is broadly two types

Random Sampling
Non-probability Sampling

Random sampling

This sampling method gives each sample unit a chance of being selected.

Unrestricted random sampling:

Number of units randomly selected from
a population with replacements; a unit can be selected more than once.

Simple random sampling:

Number of units selected without replacement; each has equal chance; balloting or computer generated

Systematic random sampling:

In this method, there is no equal chance for each unit, chance of selection is dependent on the selection of another unit.; this leads to a more even spread across the population; e.g. selection of Nth sample

Stratified random sampling:

In this sampling, the population is divided into different strata (layers) and random sampling is done at each layer; sampling fraction could be proportionate or disproportionate.

Cluster random sampling:

In this sampling method, the population is divided into clusters and simple or systematic sampling conducted.

Multi-stage sampling:

This sampling method combines two or more of the above method

Non-probability Sampling

This method does not involve random selection. It is not useless, but not preferred in health research
Other Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling:
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Judgment sampling
Snowball sampling

Tools of Data Collection

1. Questionnaires:

Questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions to gather responses. It is used by an interviewer or self administered

2. Interviews

Two-way method, allows exchange rate t

3. Observation

Observation as a tool of data collection evaluates cognitive and non-cognitive.

Characteristics Tools of Data Collection

Access

Researcher should have access to the data; there may be barriers

Adequate standard

Validity
No error

Data Analysis

Data analysis is a scientific study of collected data to discover inherent facts. It Produces the result of the study. It is the process of collecting, modeling, and analyzing data to extract insights that support decision-making.

Purposes of Data Analysis

Description of variables
Determining relationship

Interpretation and Conclusion

Interpretation/Discussion

Interpretation and discussion summarise results; not representation (no values)
They highlight significance of results
They compare results
They also Present reasons for similarity or difference

Conclusion

This show if the research achieved the objective.
It states clearly in unambiguous language
It makes necessary recommendations.

Research Proposal Outline

Title
Statement of Problem
Justification
Hypothesis
Objectives
Procedure: Site/Population, ethical consideration, sampling, design, data collection, data analysis.